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1040 Workshop #496626-2

Course Overview

Credit

Amount

CPA

24.5

CFP^®

18.5

EA / OTRP

CDFA^®

Course Author: Danny Santucci, J.D. Field of Study (CFP): Tax Planning Field of Study (CPA): Taxes Field of Study (EA/OTRP): Federal Tax Law Field of Study (CDFA): Taxes

Course Description

Course publication/revision date: This course was updated on 4/10/2026 (for 2026 planning and 2025 filings).

Designed to make the practitioner comfortable with “high traffic” issues, this program enables participants to discuss and handle individual tax essentials. The course examines and explains the practical aspects of return preparation and individual planning, bridging the gap between theory and application. Significant new developments are summarized with an emphasis on tax savings ideas. Practical applications and illustrations are used to systematically explore tax deferral, reduction, and elimination opportunities accompanying return preparation. For example, the analysis of gross income is discussed together with income-splitting techniques; property transactions are examined alongside like-kind exchanges and involuntary conversions. The result is an extraordinary blend of the latest developments affecting individual returns and their related planning ideas.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: Individual Tax Elements ........... 1-1

Federal Income Taxes: A Description ........... 1-1
Application of U.S. Individual Income Tax ........... 1-1
Gross Income ........... 1-1
Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) ........... 1-2
Taxable Income ........... 1-2
Standard Deduction ........... 1-2
Itemized Deductions ........... 1-2
Personal Exemptions ........... 1-3
Filing Status ........... 1-3
Rates & Tax Liability ........... 1-3
Tax Credits ........... 1-4
Rates, Tables, & Statutory Amounts ........... 1-4
Income Tax Rates - §1 ........... 1-4
Marriage Penalty - Mostly Gone ........... 1-6
Standard Deduction - §63 ........... 1-6
Dependent Limit - §63(c)(5) ........... 1-7
Additional Senior Deduction ........... 1-7
Personal & Dependency Exemptions (Repealed) - §151 ........... 1-8
Deemed Personal Exemption for Related Incorporating Provisions ........... 1-8
$500 (Family Tax) Credit for Certain Dependents - §24(h)(4)(A) ........... 1-8
Limitation on Itemized Deductions (Repealed) - §68 ........... 1-9
Earned Income Tax Credit - §32 ........... 1-9
Disqualified (Excessive Investment) Income - §32(i) ........... 1-10
Means-Tested Programs ........... 1-10
Social Security & Self-Employment Earnings Base ........... 1-10
Standard Mileage Rate ........... 1-11
Qualified Transportation Fringes ........... 1-11
Passenger Automobile Depreciation Limits ("CAPS") ........... 1-11
Expensing Deduction - §179 ........... 1-11
Self-Employed Health Insurance Deduction ........... 1-11
Corporate Income Tax Rates ........... 1-12
1993 Through 2017 ........... 1-12
2018 & Later: 21% ........... 1-12
Withholding & Estimated Tax ........... 1-13
Estimated Tax - §6654 ........... 1-13
Social Security, Medicare & FUTA (or Payroll) Taxes ........... 1-14
FICA - §3101, §3111 & §3121 ........... 1-15
Employment Tax Liability ........... 1-15
SECA - §1401 ........... 1-16
Wage Base ........... 1-16
Additional Hospital Insurance Tax On Certain High-Income Individuals ........... 1-16
FUTA - §3301 & §3306 ........... 1-17
Employee Retention Credit Audits - §3111 ........... 1-17
Filing Status ........... 1-17
Marital Status ........... 1-18
Single Taxpayers ........... 1-18
Divorced Persons ........... 1-18
Sham Divorce ........... 1-18
Annulled Marriages ........... 1-18
Married Taxpayers ........... 1-19
Spouse's Death ........... 1-19
Married Persons Living Apart ........... 1-19
Filing Jointly ........... 1-19
Joint Liability ........... 1-20
Innocent Spouse Exception ........... 1-20
Nonresident Alien ........... 1-23
Filing Separately ........... 1-23
Special Rules ........... 1-23
Joint Return after Separate Returns ........... 1-24
Separate Returns after Joint Return ........... 1-24
Exception ........... 1-24
Head of Household ........... 1-24
Advantages ........... 1-25
Requirements of §2(b) ........... 1-25
Considered Unmarried ........... 1-25
Keeping Up a Home ........... 1-26
Qualifying Person ........... 1-26
Summary ........... 1-27
Qualifying Widow(er) With Dependent Child ........... 1-27
Gross Income ........... 1-30
Compensation ........... 1-31
Fringe Benefits ........... 1-31
Rental Income ........... 1-31
Advance Rent ........... 1-31
Security Deposits ........... 1-31
Payment for Canceling a Lease ........... 1-32
Social Security Benefits ........... 1-32
Taxability of Benefits – Old & New Blended Application ........... 1-32
Alimony & Spousal Support ........... 1-35
Alimony Restrictions & Requirements ........... 1-35
Pre-2019 Decrees ........... 1-35
2019 & Later Decrees ........... 1-36
Pre-2019 Recapture ........... 1-36
Child Support ........... 1-37
Prizes & Awards - §74 & §274 ........... 1-37
Dividends & Distributions ........... 1-37
Ordinary Dividends ........... 1-37
Money Market Funds ........... 1-38
Dividends on Capital Stock ........... 1-38
Dividends Used to Buy More Stock ........... 1-38
Qualified Dividends ........... 1-38
Capital Gain Distributions ........... 1-39
Undistributed Capital Gains ........... 1-39
Form 2439 ........... 1-39
Basis Adjustment ........... 1-39
Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) ........... 1-39
Nontaxable Distributions ........... 1-40
Return of Capital ........... 1-40
Basis Adjustment ........... 1-40
Liquidating Distributions ........... 1-40
Distributions of Stock and Stock Rights ........... 1-41
Taxable Stock Dividends and Stock Rights ........... 1-41
Discharge of Debt Income ........... 1-42
Exceptions from Income Inclusion ........... 1-43
Reduction of Tax Attributes ........... 1-43
Order of Reductions ........... 1-44
Foreclosure ........... 1-44
Nonrecourse Indebtedness ........... 1-44
Recourse Indebtedness ........... 1-45
Residential Mortgage Debt Relief - §108 ........... 1-46
Bartering ........... 1-47
Barter Exchange ........... 1-48
Backup Withholding ........... 1-48
Recoveries ........... 1-50
Itemized Deduction Recoveries ........... 1-51
Recovery Limited to Deduction ........... 1-51
Recoveries Included in Income ........... 1-52
Non-Itemized Deduction Recoveries ........... 1-52
Amounts Recovered for Credits ........... 1-52
Tax Benefit Rule ........... 1-52
Children's Income - §63, §73 & §6012 ........... 1-53
Earned Income - §73 ........... 1-53
Unearned Income ........... 1-54
"Kiddie" Tax - §1(g) ........... 1-54
Application, Threshold & Impact ........... 1-55
Election to Report on Parents' Return - §1(g)(7)(A) [Form 8814] ........... 1-55
Election Situations ........... 1-56
Definitions ........... 1-58
AMT Exemption for Children - §59(j) ........... 1-59
Exclusions from Income ........... 1-59
Educational Savings Bonds - §135 ........... 1-60
Income Exclusion ........... 1-60
Phase Out Limitation ........... 1-60
MAGI ........... 1-60
Notice 90-7 ........... 1-60
Education Expenses ........... 1-61
Excludable Interest ........... 1-61
Forms 8818 & 8815 ........... 1-61
Scholarships & Fellowships - §117 ........... 1-61
Definitions ........... 1-61
Work Learning Service Programs - §117(c)(2)(C) ........... 1-62
Scholarship Prizes ........... 1-62
Education Expenses ........... 1-62
Scholarship Granting Organizations (SGOs) Under OBBBA - §25F ........... 1-62
Education Assistance Programs - §127 ........... 1-62
Student Loans ........... 1-63
Employer Educational Trusts - §83 ........... 1-63
Qualified Tuition Programs (QTP) - §529 ........... 1-63
Gift & Inheritance Exclusion - §2503 ........... 1-64
Subsequent Income - §61 ........... 1-65
Divorce - §1041 ........... 1-65
Business Gifts - §274(b)(1) ........... 1-65
Nominal Transfers to Employees - §132(e) ........... 1-65
Insurance - §101(a) ........... 1-65
Exceptions ........... 1-66
Purchase for Value Inclusion - §101(a)(2) ........... 1-66
Installment Payments - §61 ........... 1-66
Specified Number of Installments ........... 1-66
Specified Amount Payable ........... 1-67
Installments for Life ........... 1-67
Personal Injury Awards - §104 ........... 1-67
Personal Injury ........... 1-68
Emotional Distress or Mental Anguish ........... 1-68
Lost Wages or Lost Profits ........... 1-68
Punitive Damages ........... 1-68
Interest on a Personal Injury Award ........... 1-69
Tax Benefit Rule - §111 ........... 1-69
Interest on State & Local Obligations - §103 ........... 1-69
Foreign Earned Income Exclusion - §911 ........... 1-69
Nonbusiness & Personal Deductions ........... 1-72
Tip Income Deduction - §61 ........... 1-73
Eligibility ........... 1-73
Overtime Pay Deduction - §61 ........... 1-73
Eligibility ........... 1-74
Itemized Deductions ........... 1-74
Limitation on Itemized Deductions Suspended - §68 ........... 1-74
Personal & Dependency Exemptions (Repealed) - §151 ........... 1-75
Former Personal Exemptions ........... 1-75
Former Dependency Exemptions ........... 1-75
Former Phaseout of Exemptions ........... 1-75
Deemed Personal Exemption for Related Incorporating Provisions ........... 1-76
Interest Expense - §163 ........... 1-76
Personal Interest - §163(h)(1) ........... 1-76
Definition ........... 1-76
Deductibility ........... 1-76
Investment Interest - §163(d) ........... 1-77
Definitions ........... 1-77
Net Investment Income Limitation ........... 1-78
Qualified Residence (or Mortgage) Interest - §163(h)(3) [Form 8598] ........... 1-78
Definitions ........... 1-78
Limitations ........... 1-79
Acquisition Indebtedness ........... 1-79
Home Equity Loan Repealed ........... 1-80
OBBBA Changes ........... 1-80
Refinancing ........... 1-81
Home Improvements ........... 1-81
Timing – 24 Months or 90 Days ........... 1-81
Alternative Minimum Tax Co-ordination - §55 ........... 1-82
Points - §461 ........... 1-82
Home Purchase & Improvement Exception ........... 1-83
Refinancing ........... 1-83
Huntsman Case ........... 1-84
Mortgage Interest Statement – Form 1098 ........... 1-84
Business Interest - §163(j) ........... 1-84
Allocation of Interest Expense ........... 1-85
Education Expenses ........... 1-89
Work-Related Education ........... 1-89
Educator Expenses - §62(a) ........... 1-89
Medical Expense Deductions - §213 [Schedule A] ........... 1-90
Items Deductible ........... 1-91
Items Not Deductible ........... 1-91
Medical Insurance Premiums ........... 1-92
Medicare Part A ........... 1-92
Medicare Part B ........... 1-92
Medicare Part D ........... 1-92
Prepaid Insurance Premiums ........... 1-93
Meals & Lodging ........... 1-93
Transportation Expenses ........... 1-93
Permanent Improvements ........... 1-93
Spouses, Dependents & Others ........... 1-94
Reimbursement of Expenses ........... 1-94
Long-Term Care Provisions ........... 1-95
Long-Term Care Payments - §7702B(d)(4) ........... 1-95
Long-Term Care Premiums - §213(d)(10) ........... 1-95
IRA Withdrawals for Certain Medical Expenses – 72(t)(2)(B) ........... 1-96
ABLE Accounts - §529A ........... 1-96
Eligible Individual ........... 1-96
Qualified ABLE Program ........... 1-97
Contributions ........... 1-97
Investment Direction ........... 1-98
Distributions ........... 1-98
Charitable Contributions - §170 [Schedule A] ........... 1-100
Special Above-the-Line Deduction for Non-Itemizers ........... 1-100
Requirements for Deductibility ........... 1-101
Qualified Organizations ........... 1-101
Limitations on Contributions ........... 1-101
Five-year Carryover ........... 1-103
Contributions of Cash ........... 1-103
Benefits Received ........... 1-103
Benefit Performances ........... 1-103
Athletic Event Seating Rights ........... 1-103
Raffle Tickets, Bingo, Etc. ........... 1-104
Dues, Fees, or Assessments ........... 1-104
Contribution of Property ........... 1-104
Clothing & Household Goods ........... 1-104
Ordinary Income or Short-Term Capital Gain Type Property ........... 1-105
Exception ........... 1-105
Capital Gain Type Property ........... 1-105
Exceptions ........... 1-105
Conservation Easements - §170(b) ........... 1-106
Loss Type Property ........... 1-107
Vehicle Donations ........... 1-107
Fractional Interests ........... 1-108
Other Types of Contributions ........... 1-108
Qualified Charitable Distributions from IRAs - §408(d)(8)(A) ........... 1-108
Substantiation - §170 ........... 1-109
Cash Contributions ........... 1-109
Contributions Less Than $250 - §170 ........... 1-110
Contributions of $250 or More - §170(f)(8)(A) ........... 1-110
Payroll Deduction Records ........... 1-111
Noncash Contributions ........... 1-111
Deductions of Less Than $250 ........... 1-111
Additional Records ........... 1-112
Deductions of At Least $250 But Not More Than $500 ........... 1-112
Deductions Over $500 But Not Over $5,000 ........... 1-113
Deductions over $5,000 ........... 1-114
Contributions over $75 Made Partly for Goods or Services ........... 1-114
State and Local Tax (SALT) Deduction - §164 [Schedule A] ........... 1-115
$10,000/$40,000 Cap or Exception ........... 1-115
Income Taxes ........... 1-115
Real Property Tax ........... 1-116
Accrual Method Taxpayers ........... 1-116
State & Local Sales Tax Deduction - §164 ........... 1-116
Personal Property Tax ........... 1-117
Other Deductible Taxes ........... 1-117
Examples of Non-Deductible Taxes ........... 1-118
Casualty & Theft Losses - §165 [Schedule A] ........... 1-119
Definitions ........... 1-120
Proof of Loss ........... 1-120
Amount of Loss ........... 1-120
Insurance & Other Reimbursements ........... 1-120
Limitations ........... 1-120
Allocation for Mixed Use Property ........... 1-121
Itemized Deductions Subject to 2% Floor (Repealed) - §62 ........... 1-122
Moving Cost Deduction & Reimbursement (Repealed) - §217 ........... 1-122
Credits ........... 1-125
Child & Dependent Care Expenses Tax Credit - §21 [Form 2441] ........... 1-125
Eligibility ........... 1-126
Employment Related Expenses ........... 1-126
Qualifying Out-of-the-home Expenses ........... 1-126
Payments to Relatives ........... 1-126
Allowable Amount ........... 1-126
Dependent Care Assistance - §129 ........... 1-126
Reporting ........... 1-127
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) - §32 [Form 1040] ........... 1-127
Adoption Credit - §23 & §137 ........... 1-127
Qualified Adoption Expenses ........... 1-127
Exclusion from Income for Employer Reimbursements - §137 ........... 1-128
Child Tax Credit - §24 ........... 1-128
Credit Amount ........... 1-128
Qualifying Child ........... 1-128
Phase-out ........... 1-129
Refundable Child Care Credit Amount ........... 1-129
Earned Income ........... 1-129
AMT & Child Tax Credit ........... 1-129
$500 Credit for Certain Dependents - §24(h)(4)(A) ........... 1-129
American Opportunity Tax (formerly Hope) & Lifetime Learning Credits - §25A ........... 1-130
American Opportunity Tax Credit - §25A(b)(1) ........... 1-130
Phase Out - §25A(d)(2) ........... 1-131
Refundable Portion ........... 1-131
Lifetime Learning Credit - §25A(a)(1) ........... 1-131
Phase Out - §25A(d)(2) ........... 1-132
Ministers & Military - §107 ........... 1-132
Clergy ........... 1-132
Rental Value of a Home ........... 1-132
Members of Religious Orders ........... 1-132
Military & Veterans ........... 1-133
Wages - §61 ........... 1-133
Nontaxable Income - §134 ........... 1-134
Veterans' Benefits - §134 ........... 1-135

CHAPTER 2: Expenses, Deductions & Accounting ........... 2-1

Landlord Rental Expenses - Schedule E ........... 2-1
Repairs Versus Improvements ........... 2-2
Repairs - §162 ........... 2-2
Improvements - §263(a)(1) ........... 2-2
Final Repair Regulations - Reg. §1.263(a)-3 ........... 2-3
Application ........... 2-3
De Minimis Safe Harbor Election ........... 2-3
Making the Safe Harbor Election ........... 2-4
Analytical Framework for Repairs vs. Improvement ........... 2-4
Alternatives To The Facts & Circumstances Analysis ........... 2-5
Safe Harbor Election For Small Taxpayers ........... 2-5
Safe Harbor For Routine Maintenance ........... 2-5
Election To Capitalize Repair & Maintenance Costs ........... 2-5
Salaries & Wages - §162 ........... 2-5
Rental Payments for Property & Equipment - §162 ........... 2-6
Insurance Premiums ........... 2-6
Local Benefit Taxes & Service Charges ........... 2-6
Travel & Local Transportation Expenses ........... 2-6
Tax Return Preparation ........... 2-6
Other Expenses ........... 2-7
Tenant Rental Expense - §162 ........... 2-7
Rent Paid in Advance ........... 2-7
Lease or Purchase ........... 2-8
Determining the Intent ........... 2-8
Taxes on Leased Property ........... 2-8
Cash Method ........... 2-9
Accrual Method ........... 2-9
Cost of Acquiring a Lease ........... 2-9
Option to Renew - 75% Rule ........... 2-10
Cost of a Modification Agreement ........... 2-10
Commissions, Bonuses, & Fees ........... 2-11
Loss on Merchandise & Fixtures ........... 2-11
Improved Leased Property ........... 2-11
Construction Allowances Provided To Lessees - §110 ........... 2-11
Assignment of a Lease ........... 2-12
Capitalizing Rent Expenses ........... 2-13
Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Persons - §162(l) [Schedule C] ........... 2-14
Requirements for Eligibility ........... 2-14
Amount Deductible ........... 2-15
Hobby Loss Rules - §183 [Schedule C] ........... 2-15
Allowable Deductions ........... 2-15
Limited Deductions ........... 2-16
Profit Motive Presumptions ........... 2-17
Special Rule for Horse Breeding ........... 2-17
Other Factors ........... 2-17
Self-Employment Taxes - §3111 & §3121 ........... 2-18
Home Office Deduction - §280A [Schedule C] ........... 2-18
Requirements ........... 2-18
Deductible Expenses ........... 2-19
Employee's Home Leased To Employer ........... 2-20
Calculation ........... 2-20
Allocation ........... 2-20
Depreciation ........... 2-21
Limitations ........... 2-21
Principal Place of Business ........... 2-22
Administrative or Management Activities ........... 2-23
A&M Activities Performed at Other Locations ........... 2-23
A&M Definition ........... 2-24
Place To Meet Patients, Clients, or Customers ........... 2-24
Separate Structure ........... 2-24
Storage of inventory or product samples ........... 2-24
Business & Investment Credits ........... 2-25
Business Credit Carryback & Carryforward Rules - §39(a) ........... 2-26
NOL Comparison - §172 ........... 2-27
Travel & Entertainment ........... 2-28
Travel Expenses ........... 2-28
Determining a Tax Home ........... 2-29
Regular Place of Abode in a Real & Substantial Sense ........... 2-29
Two Work Locations ........... 2-30
Temporary Assignment ........... 2-30
One-Year Expectation Rule ........... 2-30
Away From Home - Travel Expenses ........... 2-32
Sleep or Rest ........... 2-32
Substantial Period ........... 2-32
Business Purpose - Travel & At Destination Expenses ........... 2-33
Categories of Expense ........... 2-33
Travel Costs to and from the Destination ........... 2-33
Costs at Destination ........... 2-33
All or Nothing ........... 2-34
Time ........... 2-34
51/49 Rule for Domestic Travel ........... 2-34
Foreign Business Travel ........... 2-36
Personal Pleasure ........... 2-36
Primarily Business ........... 2-36
Counting Business Days ........... 2-36
Calculation of Deductible Amount ........... 2-37
Travel Considered Entirely for Business ........... 2-37
Limitations - Travel Expenses ........... 2-37
Meals & Lodging ........... 2-37
Domestic Conventions & Meetings ........... 2-38
Foreign Conventions & Meetings ........... 2-38
Cruise Ship Convention ........... 2-39
Entertainment Activities & Facilities Deduction Repealed - §274 ........... 2-39
Facilities ........... 2-40
Final Regulations on Meal & Entertainment Deductions - TD 9925 ........... 2-40
Exceptions to Entertainment Disallowance - §274(e) ........... 2-40
Business Meals – §274(n) ........... 2-41
Percentage Reduction for Meals - §274(n)(1) ........... 2-42
Eating Facilities ........... 2-42
Exceptions ........... 2-42
Substantiation - §274(d) ........... 2-45
Travel Expense Substantiation ........... 2-45
Meal Expense Substantiation ........... 2-45
Business Gifts Expense Substantiation ........... 2-46
Substantiation Methods ........... 2-46
Adequate Records ........... 2-46
Sufficiently Corroborated Statements ........... 2-47
Exceptional Circumstances ........... 2-47
Retention of Records ........... 2-48
Exceptions to Substantiation Requirements ........... 2-48
Employee Expense Reimbursement & Reporting ........... 2-50
Unreimbursed Employee Expenses ........... 2-50
Reimbursed Employee Expenses ........... 2-50
Accountable Plans ........... 2-51
Business Connection ........... 2-51
Reasonable Period of Time ........... 2-52
Fixed Date Safe Harbor - #1 ........... 2-52
Periodic Statement Safe Harbor - #2 ........... 2-52
Adequate Accounting ........... 2-52
Per Diem Allowance Arrangements ........... 2-52
Nonaccountable Plans ........... 2-54
Local Transportation ........... 2-57
Commuting Expenses ........... 2-57
Miscellaneous Personal Usages & Items ........... 2-57
Transportation to Temporary Work Locations ........... 2-58
Temporary Work Location ........... 2-58
Transportation When Residence is Principal Place of Business ........... 2-58
No Regular Place of Work ........... 2-59
Two Places of Work ........... 2-59
Automobile Deductions & Credits ........... 2-60
Record Keeping ........... 2-60
Apportionment of Personal & Business Use ........... 2-60
Actual Cost Method ........... 2-61
Eligible Expenses ........... 2-61
Depreciation & Expensing ........... 2-61
Placed in Service ........... 2-62
Half-year Convention ........... 2-62
Quarterly Convention ........... 2-62
MACRS ........... 2-63
200% Declining Balance Method ........... 2-63
150% Declining Balance Method ........... 2-63
Vehicle Depreciation Limits - §280F(a) ........... 2-63
Vehicle Bonus (or Additional First-year) Depreciation - §168(k) ........... 2-64
$25,000 SUV Limit - §179(b)(5)(A) ........... 2-64
Expensing Limit ........... 2-65
Standard Mileage Method ........... 2-65
Choosing the Standard Mileage Method ........... 2-66
Limitations ........... 2-66
Alternating Use ........... 2-66
Switching Methods ........... 2-67
Mileage Rates ........... 2-67
Leased Auto Deduction & Inclusion Amount ........... 2-68
Clean Vehicle Credit Termination - §30D ........... 2-68
OBBBA Change ........... 2-68
Previously-owned Clean Vehicle Credit Termination - §25E ........... 2-68
BBB Change ........... 2-69
Gas Guzzler Tax - §4064 [Form 6197] ........... 2-71
Automobiles ........... 2-71
Limousines ........... 2-71
Vehicles Not Subject To Tax ........... 2-72
Fringe Benefits ........... 2-72
Excluded Fringe Benefits ........... 2-72
Prizes & Awards - §74 ........... 2-72
Group Life Insurance Premiums - §79 ........... 2-73
Personal Injury Payments - §104 ........... 2-73
Employer Contributions to Accident and Health Plans - §106 & §105 ........... 2-73
Meals & Lodging - §119 ........... 2-74
Cafeteria Plans - §125 ........... 2-74
Educational Assistance Programs - §127 ........... 2-75
Dependent Care Assistance - §129 ........... 2-76
No-Additional-Cost Services - §132(b) ........... 2-76
Qualified Employee Discounts - §132(c) ........... 2-77
Working Condition Fringe Benefits - §132(d) ........... 2-77
Transportation in Unsafe Areas - Reg.§1.132-5(m) ........... 2-77
De Minimis Fringe Benefits - §132(a)(4) ........... 2-78
Employer-Provided Automobile ........... 2-78
General Valuation Rule ........... 2-79
Cents-Per-Mile Method ........... 2-79
Commuting Value Method ........... 2-80
Annual Lease Value Method ........... 2-80
Methods of Accounting - §446 ........... 2-84
Cash Method ........... 2-84
Constructive Receipt - §451 ........... 2-84
Accrual Method ........... 2-84
Advance Payments ........... 2-85
Accrual Method Required ........... 2-85
Other Methods of Accounting ........... 2-85
Hybrid Methods ........... 2-85
Long-Term Contracts - §460 ........... 2-85
Percentage of Completion ........... 2-86
Percentage of Completion - Capitalized Cost Method ........... 2-86
Look-back Rule ........... 2-86
Uniform Capitalization Rules - §263A ........... 2-86
Annual Sales Limit ........... 2-86
Artist Exception ........... 2-87
Classification of Property ........... 2-87
Costs ........... 2-87
Self-constructed Assets ........... 2-88
Allocation Method ........... 2-88
Manufactured Products ........... 2-88
Interest ........... 2-88
Change in Accounting Method – Form 3115 ........... 2-88
Accounting Periods ........... 2-89
Definitions ........... 2-89
No Books Kept ........... 2-89
New Taxpayer ........... 2-90
Partnership ........... 2-90
S Corporations ........... 2-90
Personal Service Corporations ........... 2-91
C Corporations ........... 2-91
Business Purpose Exception ........... 2-92
Section 444 Election ........... 2-92
Partnerships & S Corporations ........... 2-92
Personal Service Corporations ........... 2-92
Tiered Structures ........... 2-92
Expensing - §179 ........... 2-92
Placed In Service ........... 2-93
Qualifying Property ........... 2-93
Eligible §1245 Property ........... 2-93
Qualified §179 Real Property ........... 2-94
Purchase Restrictions ........... 2-95
Deduction Limit ........... 2-95
Maximum Dollar & Investment Limits ........... 2-95
Taxable Income Limit ........... 2-96
Carryover of Unallowable Deduction ........... 2-96
Partnerships ........... 2-97
S Corporations ........... 2-97
Cost ........... 2-98
Election ........... 2-98
Records ........... 2-98
Revocation of Election ........... 2-98
Recapture of §179 Deductions ........... 2-99
Dispositions ........... 2-99
Installment Sales ........... 2-99
Depreciation & Cost Recovery - §167 & §168 ........... 2-99
Personal Property ........... 2-100
MACRS ........... 2-100
Elections ........... 2-101
MACRS Conventions ........... 2-101
Mid-quarter Convention Exception ........... 2-101
Recapture - §1245 ........... 2-101
Bonus (or Additional First-year) Depreciation - §168 ........... 2-102
OBBBA Changes ........... 2-103
Qualified Property - §168(k)(2) ........... 2-103
Depreciation Limits on Business Vehicles - §168(k)(2)(F)(iii) ........... 2-104
Nonqualified Property ........... 2-104
Tables ........... 2-105
Real Property ........... 2-110
MACRS ........... 2-110
Qualified Improvement Property - §168(e)(6)(A) ........... 2-110
Recovery Period & Depreciation Method - §168(b)(3)(G) ........... 2-110
Qualified Improvement Property - §168(e)(6)(A) ........... 2-110
Recapture - §1250 & §1245 ........... 2-116
Section 1245 ........... 2-116
Full Recapture ........... 2-116
Section 1250 ........... 2-116
Partial Recapture ........... 2-116
MACRS Recapture Exception for Real Property ........... 2-116
Alternative Depreciation System - §168(g) ........... 2-116
Mandatory Application ........... 2-116
Method ........... 2-117
Amortization ........... 2-117
Costs Eligible for Amortization ........... 2-117
Methods & Periods for Amortization ........... 2-118
Partnership & Corporate Organization Costs - §709 & §248 ........... 2-118
Business Start-Up Costs - §195 ........... 2-118
Depletion - §613 ........... 2-118
Other Assets ........... 2-118

CHAPTER 3: Property Transfers & Retirement Plans ........... 3-1

Sales & Exchanges of Property ........... 3-1
Conditional Sales Contract or Lease ........... 3-2
Easements ........... 3-2
Capital Gains & Losses ........... 3-2
Capital Assets - §1221 ........... 3-3
Capital Gains & Qualified Dividends Rate – §1(h) ........... 3-4
Installment Reporting of Farmland Sales - §1062 ........... 3-5
Holding Periods - (§1222 & §1223) ........... 3-5
Capital Losses - §1211 ........... 3-6
Business Property - §1231 ........... 3-6
Basis of Property ........... 3-7
Adjusted Basis ........... 3-7
Property Received as a Gift ........... 3-8
Property Received by Inheritance ........... 3-8
Changes in Property Usage ........... 3-8
Stocks & Bonds ........... 3-9
Sale of Personal Residence - §121 ........... 3-11
Two-Year Ownership & Use Requirements ........... 3-11
Prorata Exception ........... 3-12
Limitations & Criteria on Exclusion ........... 3-12
Reduced Home Sale Exclusion for Periods of Nonqualified Use ........... 3-13
Computation ........... 3-13
Nonqualified Use ........... 3-13
Post-May 6, 1997 Depreciation ........... 3-14
Surviving Spouse Home Sale Exclusion ........... 3-14
Installment Sales - §453 ........... 3-14
General Rules ........... 3-14
Dealer Sales ........... 3-16
Unstated Interest ........... 3-16
Related Party Two-Year Rule - §453(e) ........... 3-16
Disposition of Installment Notes - §453B ........... 3-17
Determining Installment Income ........... 3-17
Pledging Rule ........... 3-19
Escrow Account ........... 3-19
Depreciation Recapture ........... 3-19
Like-Kind Exchange ........... 3-19
Repossessions - §1038 ........... 3-22
Personal Property ........... 3-22
Non-Installment Method Sales ........... 3-23
Basis of Installment Obligation ........... 3-23
Gain or Loss on Repossession ........... 3-23
Installment Method Sales - §453 ........... 3-23
Basis of Installment Obligation ........... 3-23
Gain or Loss on Repossession ........... 3-23
Basis of Repossessed Personal Property ........... 3-25
Bad Debt ........... 3-25
Real Property ........... 3-25
Conditions ........... 3-26
Figuring Gain on Repossession ........... 3-26
Limit on Taxable Gain ........... 3-26
Repossession Costs ........... 3-27
Indefinite Selling Price ........... 3-28
Character of Gain ........... 3-28
Basis of Repossessed Real Property ........... 3-28
Holding Period for Resales ........... 3-29
Bad Debt ........... 3-30
Seller's Former Home Exception ........... 3-30
Involuntary Conversions - §1033 ........... 3-35
Condemnations ........... 3-35
Threat of Condemnation ........... 3-35
Reports of Condemnation ........... 3-36
Property Voluntarily Sold ........... 3-36
Easements ........... 3-36
Condemnation Award ........... 3-37
Amounts Withheld From Award ........... 3-37
Net Condemnation Award ........... 3-37
Interest on Award ........... 3-37
Payments to Relocate ........... 3-38
Severance Damages ........... 3-38
Treatment of Severance Damages ........... 3-39
Expenses of Obtaining an Award ........... 3-39
Special Assessment Withheld from Award ........... 3-39
Severance Damages Included in Award ........... 3-40
Gain or Loss from Condemnations ........... 3-41
How to Figure Gain or Loss ........... 3-41
Part Business or Part Rental ........... 3-41
Postponement of Gain ........... 3-41
Choosing to Postpone Gain ........... 3-41
Cost Test ........... 3-42
Replacement Period ........... 3-42
Condemnation ........... 3-42
Replacement Property Acquired Before the Condemnation ........... 3-42
Extension ........... 3-43
Time for assessing a deficiency ........... 3-44
At-Risk Limits for Real Estate - §465 [Form 6198] ........... 3-46
Amount At Risk ........... 3-46
Qualified Nonrecourse Financing ........... 3-46
Qualified Person ........... 3-47
Taxpayers Affected ........... 3-47
Closely Held Corporation ........... 3-47
Qualified Corporation Exception ........... 3-47
Partner & S Corporation Shareholders ........... 3-48
Partner ........... 3-48
S Corporation Shareholder ........... 3-48
Like-Kind Exchanges - §1031 [Form 8824] ........... 3-49
Statutory Requirements & Definitions ........... 3-49
Qualified Transaction - Exchanges v. Sales ........... 3-49
Held for Productive Use or investment ........... 3-49
Statutory Exclusions from §1031 ........... 3-50
Like-Kind Property ........... 3-50
The Concept of "Boot" ........... 3-50
Realized Gain ........... 3-51
Recognized Gain ........... 3-51
Limitation on Recognition of Gain under §1031 ........... 3-51
The Definition of "Boot" ........... 3-51
The Rules of "Boot" ........... 3-51
Property Boot ........... 3-51
Mortgage Boot ........... 3-51
Netting "Boot" - The Rules of Offset ........... 3-52
Property Boot Given Offsets Any Boot Received ........... 3-52
Mortgage Boot Given Offsets Mortgage Boot Received ........... 3-52
Mortgage Boot Given Does Not Offset Property Boot Received ........... 3-52
Gain or Loss on Boot ........... 3-52
Basis on Tax-Deferred Exchange ........... 3-52
Allocation of Basis ........... 3-53
Installment Reporting of Boot - §453(f)(6) ........... 3-53
Exchanges Between Related Parties ........... 3-53
Reporting an Exchange ........... 3-53
Types of Exchanges ........... 3-53
Two-Party Exchanges ........... 3-54
Multiple-Party Exchanges ........... 3-54
Delayed (or Deferred) Exchanges ........... 3-54
Time Requirements ........... 3-55
Qualified Intermediary ........... 3-55
Disqualified Person ........... 3-55
Retirement Plans ........... 3-59
Qualified Deferred Compensation ........... 3-59
Qualified v. Nonqualified Plans ........... 3-59
Major Benefit ........... 3-60
Current Deduction ........... 3-60
Timing of Deductions ........... 3-60
Part of Total Compensation ........... 3-60
Compensation Base ........... 3-60
ERISA Regulatory Requirements & PBGC Insurance ........... 3-61
Basic ERISA Provisions ........... 3-61
Fiduciary Responsibilities ........... 3-61
Bonding Requirement ........... 3-61
Prohibited Transactions ........... 3-62
Additional Restrictions ........... 3-62
Loans ........... 3-62
Employer Securities ........... 3-62
Excise Penalty Tax ........... 3-63
PBGC Insurance ........... 3-63
Sixty-Month Requirement ........... 3-63
Plans Exempt from PBGC Coverage ........... 3-63
Basic Requirements for a Qualified Retirement Plan ........... 3-64
Written Plan ........... 3-64
Trust ........... 3-64
Permanency ........... 3-64
Exclusive Benefit for Employees ........... 3-64
Reversion of Trust Assets to Employer ........... 3-65
Participation & Coverage ........... 3-65
Age & Service ........... 3-65
Coverage ........... 3-65
Vesting ........... 3-66
Full & Immediate Vesting ........... 3-66
Minimum Vesting ........... 3-66
Unified Vesting ........... 3-67
Nondiscrimination Compliance ........... 3-67
Contribution & Benefit Limits ........... 3-69
Defined Benefit Plans (Annual Benefits Limitation) - §415 ........... 3-70
Defined Contribution Plans (Annual Addition Limitation) - §415 ........... 3-70
Limits on Deductible Contributions - §404 ........... 3-70
Assignment & Alienation ........... 3-71
Miscellaneous Requirements ........... 3-71
Types of Qualified Retirement Plans ........... 3-71
Defined Benefit Plans ........... 3-72
Defined Contribution Plans ........... 3-72
Types of Defined Contribution Plans ........... 3-72
Profit-sharing ........... 3-72
Money Purchase Pension ........... 3-73
Section 401(k) Plans ........... 3-74
Self-Employed Keogh or HR10 Plan ........... 3-76
Self-Employed Rate ........... 3-77
Determining the Deduction ........... 3-78
Individual Retirement Accounts - IRAs ........... 3-78
Employer IRA ........... 3-80
10% Distribution Penalty ........... 3-80
Simplified Employee Pension Plans (SEPs) ........... 3-80
SIMPLE Plans ........... 3-82
SIMPLE IRA Plan ........... 3-83
SIMPLE §401(k) Plan ........... 3-83
Roth IRA - §408A ........... 3-83
Required Minimum Distributions (RMDs) ........... 3-86
Calculating RMDs ........... 3-89
Designated Beneficiary ........... 3-90
Date the Designated Beneficiary Is Determined ........... 3-90
Required Minimum Distributions during Owner's Lifetime ........... 3-90
Sole Beneficiary Spouse Who Is More Than 10 Years Younger ........... 3-91
Required Minimum Distributions in the Year of the Owner's Death ........... 3-92
Distributions after Owner's Death to Beneficiaries – "10-year Rule" ........... 3-92
Stretching Required Distributions ........... 3-93
Beneficiary Is an Individual - Designated Beneficiary Exists ........... 3-93
Multiple Individual Beneficiaries ........... 3-94
Surviving Spouse Sole Designated Beneficiary ........... 3-94
Non-Spouse Beneficiary ........... 3-95
Beneficiary Is Not an Individual - No Designated Beneficiary ........... 3-96
Trust as Beneficiary ........... 3-96
Conduit Trusts ........... 3-97
Accumulation Trusts ........... 3-97
Estate Tax Deduction ........... 3-97
Post-Retirement Tax Treatment of Distributions ........... 3-97
Divorce ........... 3-97
Losses on IRA Investments ........... 3-98
Estate Tax Consequences ........... 3-98
Income In Respect of a Decedent ........... 3-98
Tax-Free Rollovers ........... 3-98
Penalty Tax on Premature Distributions ........... 3-99
Prohibited Rollovers - §402(c) ........... 3-99
Waiting Period Between Rollovers ........... 3-99
Partial Rollovers ........... 3-100
Withholding Requirement ........... 3-100
Conduit IRAs ........... 3-100
Miscellaneous Rollovers ........... 3-100
Contribution Limits ........... 3-102
Defined Benefit Plans - §415(b)(1)(A) ........... 3-102
Defined Contribution Plans - §415(c)(1)(A) ........... 3-102
Compensation Limit - §401, §404 & §408 ........... 3-102
IRA Contribution Limit - §219 ........... 3-102
Standard Catch-up Contribution for IRAs - §219(b)(5)(B) ........... 3-102
IRA AGI Phaseout Limits - §219 ........... 3-103
Individual Taxpayer is an Active Plan Participant ........... 3-103
Spouse is an Active Plan Participant ........... 3-103
Roth Contribution Limit - §408A(c)(2) & §219 ........... 3-103
Roth AGI Phaseout Limits - §408A(c)(3) ........... 3-104
§401(k), §403(b) & §457 Elective Deferral & Catch-up Limits ........... 3-104
Roth Treatment of Catch-up Contributions – Secure Act §603 ........... 3-104
Super Catch-up for §401(k), §403(b), and §457 plans ........... 3-105
"Rothification" or After-Tax Roth Contribution Rules ........... 3-105
Deemed Roth contribution ........... 3-105
SIMPLE Plans ........... 3-106
Simplified Employee Pensions (SEPs) ........... 3-106
Contribution Limit ........... 3-106
Compensation Limit ........... 3-106

CHAPTER 4: Losses, AMT & Compliance ........... 4-1

Passive Losses ........... 4-1
Prior Law ........... 4-1
Passive Loss Rules - §469 ........... 4-3
Application ........... 4-3
Active Losses ........... 4-3
Credits - §469(a)(1)(B) ........... 4-4
Calculating Passive Loss ........... 4-4
Categories of Income & Loss ........... 4-4
Passive - §469(c) ........... 4-4
Portfolio - §§469(e)(1)(A) & (B) ........... 4-5
Material Participation - §469(h)(1) ........... 4-6
Self-Charged Interest Regulations ........... 4-6
Passive Deduction - Portfolio Income ........... 4-6
Regulations ........... 4-6
Suspension of Disallowed Losses - §§469(g) & (b) ........... 4-11
Fully Taxable Disposition ........... 4-11
Abandonment & Worthlessness ........... 4-11
Related Party Transactions - §469(g)(1)(B) ........... 4-12
Credits ........... 4-12
Disallowance ........... 4-12
Increase Basis Election - §469(j)(9) ........... 4-12
Entire Interest ........... 4-13
Partnership ........... 4-13
Grantor Trust ........... 4-13
Other Transfers ........... 4-13
Transfer By Reason Of Death - §469(g)(2) ........... 4-13
Transfer by Gift - §469(j)(6) ........... 4-13
Installment Sale - §469(g)(3) ........... 4-14
Activity No Longer Treated As Passive Activity - §469(f)(1) ........... 4-14
Closely Held To Nonclosely Held Corporation - §469(f)(2) ........... 4-15
Nontaxable Transfer ........... 4-15
Ordering of Losses on Disposition of an Entire Interest - §469(g) ........... 4-16
Capital Loss Limitation - §1211 ........... 4-17
Carryforwards - §469(b) ........... 4-17
Allocation of Suspended Losses - §469(j)(4) ........... 4-17
Taxpayers Affected - §469(a)(2) ........... 4-18
Noncorporate Taxpayers ........... 4-18
Regular Closely Held Corporations ........... 4-18
Personal Service Corporations ........... 4-18
Definition ........... 4-18
Real Estate Professionals - §469(c)(7) ........... 4-18
Activities – Reg. §1.469-4 ........... 4-19
Facts & Circumstances Test – Reg. §1.469-4(c)(2) ........... 4-19
Relevant Factors ........... 4-19
Rental Activities - Reg. §1.469-4(d)(1) ........... 4-21
Limited Partnership Activities - Reg. §1.469-4(d)(3) ........... 4-21
Partnership & S Corporation Activities - Reg. §1.469-4(d)(5) ........... 4-21
Consistency - Reg. §1.469-4(e) ........... 4-22
Regrouping - Reg. §1.469-4(e)(2) ........... 4-22
Partial Dispositions - Reg. §1.469-4(g) ........... 4-22
Alternative Minimum Tax - §55 ........... 4-25
Computation ........... 4-25
Tentative Minimum Tax ........... 4-26
AMT Exemption Amounts - §55(d) ........... 4-26
AMT Exemption Phaseout - §55(d) & §59(j) ........... 4-27
Regular Tax Deduction - §55(c) ........... 4-27
Tax Preferences & Adjustments - §§56 & 57 ........... 4-28
Preferences & Adjustments for All Taxpayers ........... 4-28
Preferences & Adjustments for Noncorporate Taxpayers Only ........... 4-28
Preferences & Adjustments for Corporations Only Prior to 2018 ........... 4-28
Adjustments - §56 ........... 4-29
Itemized Deductions ........... 4-29
Medical Expenses ........... 4-29
Taxes ........... 4-29
Interest ........... 4-29
Depreciation Adjustment ........... 4-30
Alternative Depreciation System (ADS) ........... 4-30
ADS Recovery Periods ........... 4-31
AMT Recovery Periods Conformed to Regular Recovery Periods ........... 4-32
Mining Exploration and Development Costs - §56(a)(2) ........... 4-32
Basis ........... 4-32
Long-Term Contracts - §56(a)(3) ........... 4-32
Home Construction Contracts ........... 4-33
Pollution Control Facilities - §56(a)(5) ........... 4-33
Installment Sales ........... 4-33
Circulation Expenditures - §56(b)(2) ........... 4-33
Research & Experimental Expenditures - §56(b)(2) ........... 4-34
Incentive Stock Options - §56(b)(3) ........... 4-34
Passive Farm Losses - §58(a)(2) ........... 4-34
Definition ........... 4-35
Loss Disallowance ........... 4-35
Allocation ........... 4-35
Same Activity Suspension ........... 4-36
Passive Activity Losses ........... 4-36
Former Corporate Untaxed Reported Profits & ACE Adjustments ........... 4-37
Tax Preferences - §57 ........... 4-37
Depletion - §57(a)(1) ........... 4-37
Intangible Drilling Costs - §57(a)(2) ........... 4-38
Excess Drilling Costs ........... 4-38
Private Activity Bond Interest - §57(a)(5)(C) ........... 4-39
Alternative Tax NOL Deduction - §56(a)(4) ........... 4-39
Carrybacks & Carryovers - §172 ........... 4-39
Alternative Minimum Foreign Tax Credit - §59 ........... 4-39
Foreign Tax Credit Carryback or Carryover - §904(c) ........... 4-40
Tentative Minimum Tax ........... 4-40
Minimum Tax Credit - §53 ........... 4-40
Regular Income Tax Reduced ........... 4-41
Carryforward of Credit ........... 4-41
Other Credits ........... 4-41
AMT for Large Corporations - §55 ........... 4-41
Adjusted Financial Statement Income ........... 4-42
Application of Tax ........... 4-42
Compliance ........... 4-45
Reporting Requirements ........... 4-45
Reporting Digital Assets Transactions – [Form 8949] ........... 4-45
Real Estate Transactions [Form 1099-S] ........... 4-46
Sales of a Principal Residence ........... 4-47
Wage and Tax Statement [Form W-2] ........... 4-47
Nonemployee Compensation [1099-NEC] ........... 4-48
Employee Status ........... 4-48
Miscellaneous Information [Form 1099-MISC] ........... 4-50
Payment Card & Third Party Network Transactions [Form 1099-K] ........... 4-51
OBBA Changes ........... 4-52
Interest Income [Form 1099-INT] ........... 4-52
Dividends and Distributions [Form 1099-DIV] ........... 4-52
Payments from Qualified Education Programs [Form 1099-Q] ........... 4-52
Distributions From Retirement Plans [Form 1099-R] ........... 4-53
Mortgage Interest Statement [Form 1098] ........... 4-53
Cash Reporting – §6050I [Form 8300] ........... 4-53
Notification Statement ........... 4-54
Definitions ........... 4-54
Exceptions ........... 4-55
Recipient's Knowledge ........... 4-55
Cash Reporting Rules - Attorneys ........... 4-56
Sale of Certain Partnership Interests - §751(a) [Form 8308] ........... 4-56
Tax Shelter Registration Number - §6111 [Form 8271] ........... 4-57
Asset Acquisition Statement - §1060 [Form 8594] ........... 4-57
Accuracy-Related Penalties - §6662 ........... 4-57
Negligence or Disregard - §6662(b)(1) ........... 4-57
Adequate Disclosure ........... 4-58
Penalty ........... 4-58
Substantial Understatement of Income Tax - §6662(d) ........... 4-58
Adequate Disclosure ........... 4-59
Penalty ........... 4-60
Substantial Valuation Misstatement - §6662(e) ........... 4-60
Penalty ........... 4-60
Substantial Overstatement of Pension Liabilities - §6662(f) ........... 4-60
Penalty ........... 4-61
Substantial Estate & Gift Tax Valuation Understatement - §6662(g) ........... 4-61
Penalty ........... 4-61
Understatement Due to Unreasonable Position - §6694(a) ........... 4-61
Reasonable Position – "More Likely Than Not Standard" - §6694(a)(2)(C) ........... 4-62
Reasonable Position - Substantial Authority Standard - §6694(a)(2)(A) ........... 4-62
Adequate Disclosure - §6694(a)(2)(B) ........... 4-63
Form 8275-R ........... 4-63
Information Reporting & Penalties - §6721 et al ........... 4-64
Corrections Resulting in Reduced Penalties ........... 4-64
Small Businesses ........... 4-65
Reasonable Cause ........... 4-65
Failures ........... 4-65
Failure to Furnish Copy of Return to Taxpayer - §6695(a) ........... 4-65
Failure to Sign Return - §6695(b) ........... 4-65
Failure to Furnish Identifying Number - §6695(c) ........... 4-65
Failure to Retain Copy or List - §6695(d) ........... 4-65
Failure to File Partnership Return - §6698 ........... 4-66
Failure to File S Corporation Return - §6699 ........... 4-66
Disclosure or Use of Information - §6713 ........... 4-66
Statute of Limitations for Assessments ........... 4-66
Three-Year Assessment Periods ........... 4-66
Six-Year Assessment Period ........... 4-66
No Statute Of Limitations ........... 4-66
Extension of Statute Of Limitations ........... 4-67
Examination of Returns ........... 4-67
How Returns Are Selected ........... 4-67
Arranging the Examination ........... 4-67
Transfers ........... 4-67
Representation ........... 4-67
Recordings ........... 4-68
Repeat Examinations ........... 4-68
Changes to Return ........... 4-68
Appealing Examination Findings ........... 4-68
Appeals Office ........... 4-69
Appeals to the Courts ........... 4-69
Court Decisions ........... 4-69
Recovering Litigation Expenses ........... 4-69
Other Remedies ........... 4-70
Claims for Refund ........... 4-70
Cancellation of Penalties ........... 4-70
Reduction of Interest ........... 4-70

Answers and Explanations to Review Questions ........... 4-70
Glossary ........... 4-128
Index ........... 4-130

Course Details

Course Details, Learning Objectives, Table of Contents